The Social Mill free essay sample

Mill Avenue, a street near the ASU Tempe campus, is paved with entertainment. The northernmost section of the road before Tempe Town Lake teems with clubs, restaurants, and shops. This part of the avenue, called the Mill District, plays a critical role in the local economy and culture. There’s no livelier place to be found in all of the Phoenix Metropolitan area – come the weekend, thousands of people flock to dance, eat, and shop. But Mill suffers from a design flaw. I had just finished eating at Corleones, a restaurant about a block and a half away from the Light Rail station. According to my timetable, the next train would be arriving in four minutes. Four minutes is, at least in theory, more than enough time to traverse one and a half of Mills undersized blocks. In practice, I was held up by two traffic lights on my way there. We will write a custom essay sample on The Social Mill or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I missed the train and had to wait twenty extra minutes in the dark, warm summer night. Wiping the sweat from my face and cursing Henry Fords name, I recalled a newspaper article that mentioned a proposal to block the street from cars. The Mill District should be permanently closed to cars to improve safety, encourage additional commerce on Mill as well as on nearby streets, and create a much-needed public place for the citizens of Tempe. Erecting barricades on either side of the Mill District to keep cars out would save the lives and time of both drivers and pedestrians. The traffic through Mill can be thought of like a university students schedule. Pedestrians are vital classes, while drivers are clubs and jobs. Though extracurricular activities are enjoyable and enhance student life, they should not be allowed to interfere with coursework. Drivers occasionally collide with pedestrians, and in pedestrian-heavy areas like Mill, the risk of a crash is higher than usual. (It should also be mentioned that a great many establishments on Mill deal in alcohol, and alcohol tends to inhibit executive faculties like staying on sidewalks.) The Mill District is one of the few places where cars cause more problems than they solve. Just as making time to study is tough, parking on Mill is difficult. The eighty minute time limit on Tempe parking meters is not long enough for most people – simply getting into a crowded rest aurant may take that long, to say nothing of actually eating. The parking garages are clustered in a group near the lake on the north end. The Mill student can avoid conflict by sticking to a strict study schedule: routing cars along a street parallel to Mill to a garage would reduce the risk of being hit. Drivers would benefit from such an arrangement as well. Because of frequent street crossings, Mill requires sudden starts and stops, both of which are liable to cause automobile crashes. A more predictable road is a safer road, just as an uninterrupted hour of study time is infinitely more valuable than a handful of ten minute blocks. Additionally, drivers would be forced to walk a few blocks from the heart of the party to get to their vehicles. Such a policy would help ensure the most inebriated individuals do not ever make it to their cars and onto the roads and highways where they threaten others lives. Roads in the Valley were not designed with bicycles in mind. Bike lanes ar e thin and dangerous afterthoughts that disappear from the asphalt whenever they become the least bit inconvenient for cars. By keeping Mill free of cars, bikers may zip north and south without fear of careless motorists, especially in daylight hours. Daylight compounds the available space for bicycles; the most popular establishments on Mill are closed during the day. With the car lanes empty, bicycles can roam without fear. Bicyclists are less common at night; when the daily commute is over would be invaluable to another group currently underrepresented in the city. Street vendors and performers, though common in other cities, are uncommon in Tempe. High temperatures are at least partially to blame, but the cool summer nights and winters bring no deviation from the mean. With a vast empty expanse between defunct sidewalks, a carless Mill would see new breeds of salespeople and entertainers. Local artists could set up stands and sell their wares as they do at farmers markets. Food carts would surely cater to shoppers unwilling to pay more and wait longer at a full service restaurant. Existing individuals could use the extra room as well. The guitarists endemic to Mill street corners could bring additional amplifiers and other musicians with them, thus expanding their operations. Restaurants could lure customers inside with samples of signature dishes without risking police citations for obstructing the sidewalk. The clothing stores might hire models to show off the latest fashions for sale. Any business can come up with a way to advertise itself given a public place to advertise in. Businesses close to Mill would also benefit. The areas surrounding Mill would see bigger profits as well. Cars that would normally travel north and across the lake via Mill would be forced west. ASU lies to the Mill Districts immediate east and prevents meaningful north-south movement. The first major street to Mills west, Ash Avenue, does not even begin to approach Mills grandeur. The buildings on Ash are generally old and run-down. The flow of cars along Ash would empower Ashs businesses by the same mechanism that begets cities along interstate highways and around seaports. With more people seeing and interacting with its businesses as a matter of course, Ash Avenue would surge along with the Mill District. One might wonder – for every cars worth of commerce Ash gains, would Mill not lose an equal amount? The Mill Districts shops are very focused in what they sell: custom-printed T-shirts, bulk candy, and designer clothing, to name a few specialties. Ash Avenue offers more general products – a gas station, convenience store, and coffee shop all sit within a quarter mile of each other. Special-interest items are not as readily desired as general ones. One might impulsively indulge in a latte before a long day, but it is hard to imagine the average person stopping to check out the new Autumn styles on their way to work. Someone buying from the Mill District is not doing so on whim, but on a firm intent, and intent does not strike at random. Times Square in New York City is proof that municipal economics is not a zero-sum game: despite carrying no car traffic, Times Square manages to eke out a simple life as the most important commerce hub in the city (not counting Wall Stre et). Tempe lacks public places; a pedestrian Mill District could act much like a park. Tempe has only one remarkable area for the public to congregate: the park on the shores of Tempe Town Lake. Because the park is among the most important in the Phoenix metropolitan area, all manner of festivals and charity events are held there. Where can residents go to relax Saturday morning when the paths by the lake are crowded with American flags or runners for breast cancer? No alternative exists. A quiet and spacious place free of traffic is ideal. The Mill District could become all of these things during the day if cars were detoured away. With the simple addition of benches, tables, and more plants, the space could serve as a park in its own right when not hosting Tempes nightlife. Tempe stands to benefit from switching off the traffic lights and painting over the lines at the Mill District. Motorists, walkers, and bicyclists alike would be safer as they move around the city. Both Mill and neighbor Ash would see economic improvements from redirecting traffic to the latter. Mills capacity to act as a park with only minor renovations is wasted on automobile traffic, particularly in a city where the only other major public place is reserved every other weekend. Mill transformed would be more than the nightlife hotspot it is reputed to be – the district would be able to serve a purpose at all hours of the day.

L.A essays

L.A essays Eduardo Galeanos Open Veins of Latin America looks at the political, economic and social history of Latin America. Mr. Galeano argues that the More Developed Countries played a main role in the Lesser Developed Country status Latin America has been accustomed to. Throughout the book he gives examples of how the M.D.C are responsible for the social hierarchy that has formed over generations. This hierarchy sees the peasants, who assemble the population, of this agriculturally abundant land starving while the few acquire riches and control the destiny of the land and its people. Galeano takes you through the history of Latin America from the discovery of this great land by Christopher Columbus to the 1970s. He will argue that the riches of the land have bonded the people of the Americas to poverty and suffering. The invasion of Latin America first began with Spain and Portugal in the 1500s, than gave way to Britain in the 1800s and finally ended in the hands of the United States in the 20th Century. Its has seen political and economic power concentrated in a few, instituted by the ones that colonized, that do not have the peoples best wishes in mind. Instead, their main goal was to acquire riches for themselves and more importantly for their country. Spain was the first to plague Latin America. They did not colonize to help the indigenous people increase their standard of living; instead they colonized to plunder the land of its natural riches to be exported back to Spain and pushed the native population into an era of oppression. It first started with the extortion of the natural minerals that were so abundant throughout Latin America and the enslavement of its native population. That eventually opened the doors for sugar, cotton, coffee, and other agriculturally grown products to be harvested and exported. The lands of Latin America have served the purposes of other countries ...

Case study discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Case study discussion - Essay Example Administrators face quite a number of moral challenges such as having to use the same curriculum as that set for regular students to teach the disabled who do have a small functioning level. From these it is clear that the decision of whether a disabled student should take the regular statewide test or the alternative assessment tests should be left to the administrator but not to the IEP team who do not consider the capability of disabled students. Judging from the case study Jamaica was severed in his least restrictive environment. It is clear since he could not change to better behaviors when he was offered a chance to prove himself. He was not gifted to surmount his emotional disturbance, but he was rather controlled by it leading to his state of special education. The fact that his relation with other students was not real disqualifies him from been in a typical high school to avoid him from harassing other students repeatedly. Jamaicas act of quitting school only proves that he was not ready to go to an ordinary high school since if he could not improve compared to when in a well-monitored situation. He would even perform desperately under no close supervision. Thus, it would only fasten his act of quitting

Geography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Geography - Essay Example ch has focused on so-called transitions or changes in the population’s death rates and birth rates, as they pertain to populations in the industrialized world, stretching back two centuries. The model has four stages: stage 1, known as the pre-modern stage; stage 2, or the urbanizing/industrializing stage; stage 3, or the mature industrial stage; and stage 4, or the post-industrial stage. The early stages are characterized by high CBR and high CDR figures, at around 35-40 for every thousand. At stage four, or the post-industrial stage, the population is at its highest, even as CBR and CDR figures are at their lowest, at around 10 for every thousand people. In the model, the CBR and CDR figures trend downwards slowly from stage 1 to stage 2, but the downwards trend accelerates at stage 3, until the figures plateu at stage 4, at the levels described above, around 10 for every 1,000 population. The stages of the model, and the CDR, CBR, and population figures for every stage, are identified and plotted in this graph by way of illustration (Montgomery; Lee 167-190; Galor 1-10): In the plot above, the large population at stage 4 and the low CBR and CDR figures there are graphically illustrated. In the first stage, the birth and death rates are similar, with CBR being only fractionally larger than CDR, so that the population was almost static, and population doubling was measured in thousands of years. Stage One is characterized by high levels of infant mortality, from poor hygiene that resulted in many diseases such as diarrhea and cholera. With the advent of industrialization and urbanization. Medicine was also archaic at that time, with knowledge on disease management and prevention being basic or unavailable altogether, and the threat of hunger from famines eventually coming to pass. The high death rates countered the effect of high birth rates, or CBR, at this stage (Montgomery; Lee 167-190; Galor 1-10). In the industrialization and urbanization stage, or stage

New Media Technology Essay Example for Free

New Media Technology Essay Tim Berners-Lee, the creator of the worldwide web, initially intended his invention to be a haven of collaboration where people could share their knowledge (Gauntlett 2009:39). Although the prospect of such public journalism corresponded with democratic and egalitarian principles, journalists took this idea with a pinch of salt. This was almost 20 years ago, before the information highway had, for better or for worse, stretched its limbs across the globe. Today, the new media has redefined both journalism and self expression in conflicting ways that leave an individual wondering at the veracity of digital information. In the last decade, internet has gone through an explosive growth and diversification. No one could have foreseen how the internet would pervade our lives and transform the very notion of being part of a society. It has provided the ultimate freedom of the new age: a single blogger can speak to the entire world, a concept virtually impossible two decades ago. However, with this flourishing and unbound growth, the internet brings a unique set of predicaments and dilemmas. The most profound and relevant of such problems is the age-old clash of a person’s right of self-expression with the hazards of misinformation of the whole society. Whether this deceit comes about due to ignorance or design is irrelevant; in a society that promotes freedom of speech, misinformation is bound to occur on both grounds. While conferring infinite freedom to the common person, this means of self-expression comes with the acrid realization that words from a layman, presented as the predominating views of his community, are not necessarily a blessing. The news on the new media of today is more about gossip and entertainment then first-rate journalism. Since when did journalism begin to cater to the ever-growing need of the populace to be entertained? In an interview to BBC World News America, Ted Koppel, former Nightline presenter, criticized the digital journalist of today for being a mere supplier for consumers (Whitlock 2010). The commercial expansion of new media and ever-growing competition in the free market means that journalists have to write what sells; or rather, gets the most â€Å"hits† on a website. How did we come to a situation where the populace demands not to be informed, but to be perpetually entertained? Discussing news on the television, Daya Kishan Thussu (2007: 9) states: â€Å"There is a concern that too much news is creating an information overload, contributing to a structural erosion of the public sphere in the Habermasian sense, where the viewer, bombarded with visuals, is unable to differentiate between public information and corporate propaganda. † If that is true regarding television news, it most definitely holds water concerning internet news. The gargantuan flow of information, most of which lacks in credibility, is bombarded on any user who wades through the mire of pop up advertisements, banners, and mass e-mailing. Although, these devices are some of the tools used in the race to get more traffic on ones website, the capitalist agenda is far from being the most unfavorable feature of journalism. It is the ubiquitous use of new media, especially by the youth that yields the most detrimental effects. The frivolous writing that is spilt across the new media today may be the first literature some of us encounter, and draw heavily from. However, there have been examples of the internet doing its job where other media have failed. Earlier this year, on January 12th, an earthquake hit the Caribbean island of Haiti. All landlines and mobile connections were suspended. The production team of the news program Sunrise at Sky News, London, was finding it difficult to channel in the first reports from the disaster-struck area. It was to be a young member of their team, Emily Purser, who used Twitter and instant messaging via Google and Skype, to secure the first reports of the incident (Elward 2010). Another, much publicized affair was the use of Twitter by the political opposition in Iran to protest the presidential elections. The protestants took to all sorts of media, but the loudest dissent was voiced, surprisingly, through microblogging. This medium proved to be fast, portable, and most importantly very difficult to contain. Ironically, this very accessibility makes the medium too erratic, unreliable, and mundane to be of any journalistic value (Grossman 2009). An obvious embodiment of the debate between free speech and quality journalism is Wikipedia. This resource epitomizes the â€Å"by the people, for the people† ideology, but this trait alone does not give it any credibility whatsoever, at least not in academic circles. A former editor-in-chief of Encyclopedia Britannica compared Wikipedia to a â€Å"public toilet†, accusing it of delivering information that has no authenticity (Shirky 2006). On the other hand, notions that anything that appears in print media will always be more accurate than digital information are absurd. What Wikipedia envisions is the process through which one can witness the knowledge of its users evolving and perfecting itself through countless revisions (Shirky 2006). The trump card in the argument for Wikipedia comes from a comparison of veracity of data between itself and Britannica; the scientific journal Nature declares them to be of similar accuracy (Giles 2005:900). This collaboration is a sign for those who think people are becoming ever more antisocial and misanthropic, for this is a global effort in creating something for the benefit of all and no monetary gain (Gauntlett 2009:42) . Patricia Wallace, in her book, The Psychology of the Internet writes about how free flow of information can be used to cultivate critical and analytical thinking amongst students who access it (1999:245). Nevertheless, the fact remains that the new media is losing credibility day by day. Although, the global sharing of information and its revision by collaboration is a noble idea, public journalism makes it exceedingly difficult to acquire accurate information; and to accept the new media as a genuine journalistic medium. BIBLIOGRAPHY Gauntlet, David. (2009). Case Study: Wikipedia. Eds. Creeber, G Martin, R. Digital Cultures. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill. Thussu, Daya Kishan. (2007). News as Entertainment: The Rise of Global Infotainment. London: SAGE Publications. Wallace, Patricia. (1999). The Psychology of The Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shirky, Clay. Interviewed on Imagine, BBC1, UK (aired 5th December 2006) Giles, Jim. (2005). Internet encyclopedias go head to head, Nature, 438:900. www. nature. com/nature/journal/v438/n7070/full/438900a. html (5th May, 2010) Grossman, Lev. (2009). Iran Protests: Twitter, the Medium of the Movement. Time. http://www. time. com/time/world/article/0,8599,1905125,00. html (5th May, 2010) Whitlock, Scott. (2010). Ted Koppel Slams Undisciplined Internet Journalism. NewsBusters. http://newsbusters. org/blogs/scott-whitlock/2010/04/13/ted-koppel-slams-undisciplined-internet-journalism-longs-good-old-da (5th May, 2010) Elward, David. (2010) Work of a trainee newspaper journalist. (5th May, 2010) http://davidelward. com/2010/03/09/the-digital-revolution-need-not-sound-the-death-knell-for-good-journalism/

The Use of Digital Cameras :: Expository Essays Research Papers

The Use of Digital Cameras Digital cameras allow computer users to take pictures and store the photographed images digitally instead of on traditional film. With some digital cameras, a user downloads the stored pictures from the digital camera using special software included with the camera. With others, the camera stores the pictures on a floppy disk or on a PC Card. A user then copies the pictures to a computer by inserting the floppy disk into a disk drive or the PC Card into a PC Card slot (Chambers and Norton 134). Once stored on a computer, the pictures can be edited with photo-editing software, printed, faxed, sent via electronic mail, included in another document, or, posted to a Web site for everyone to see. Three basic types of digital cameras are studio cameras, field cameras, and point-and-shoot cameras (Shelly Cashman Series ® Microsoft Word 2000 Project 2). The most expensive and highest quality of the three, a studio camera, is a stationary camera used for professional studio work. Photojournalists frequently use field cameras because they are portable and have a variety of lenses and other attachments. As with the studio camera, a field camera can be quite expensive. Reliable and lightweight, the point-and-shoot camera provides acceptable quality photographic images for the home or small business user. A point-and-shoot camera enables the users to add pictures to personalized greeting cards, a computerized photo album, a family newsletter, certificates, awards, or a personal Web site. Because of its functionality, it is ideal camera for mobile users such as a real estate agents, insurance agents, and general contractors. The image quality produced by a digital camera is measured by the number of bits it stores in a dot and the resolution, or number of dots per inch. The higher each number, the better the quality, but the more expensive the camera. Most of today’s point-and-shoot cameras are at least 24-bit with a resolution ranging from 640 x 480 to 1024 x 960 (Walker 57-89).

On the Problem of Induction

A Critique of Nelson Goodman’s Concept of the New Riddle of InductionThe development of the method of induction has been privy to the presentation and solution of riddles. At the initial level of its development, it has been privy to the old riddle of induction discovered by Hume. After the solution of the former riddle, however, a new riddle of induction was discovered by Nelson Goodman. In lieu of this, this paper opts to consider the development of the method of induction as a methodology defined by Hume and Goodman’s conception of the Inductive method.Induction refers to â€Å"a method of reasoning by which a general law or principle is inferred from observed particular instances† (Flew 171). The method of inductive inference may be considered as the primary means through which justifications are formulated to show the relationship of evidence towards particular assumptions (Norton 2). The process of induction, in this sense, may be seen to arise whenever we note that evidence lends support to a hypothesis while in the process failing to establish its deductive certainty. It was such a formulation of the method of induction that enabled the conception of the first riddle. What follows is a presentation of the main arguments of the aforementioned riddle as formulated by David Hume.Hume argued that since no necessary connections exists between empirical phenomena, it is always possible that a future observation will prove our inferences wrong no matter how appealing it may have been or how richly supported by past observations. This problem, in the more recent formulations of the problem has been referred to as the uniformity principle [in this sense the lack of such uniformity]. According to the argument, nature has no uniformity. If such is the case it thereby follows that there is no voucher that which ensure the consistency of man’s most refined predictions. It might be argued that such an assumption has never been denied in th e formulation of predictions however there has been agreement regarding the results of such an agreement [or lack thereof] within the province of induction.To some, it means that induction is never valid or justified, while to others, it means that induction simply calls for different standards of validity (Landesman 164). The latter view strips the aforementioned riddle [Humean riddle] of its problematic context. This is evident if one considers that since the rules of deductive validity are inapplicable to induction, it cannot be a problem that inductive inference is unavoidably attended by the possibility that a future observation may prove it wrong (Goodman 4). The old riddle is then dismissed because it cannot possibly be the genuine problem of induction.Fact, Fiction, and Forecast present Goodman’s construal of what he refers to as the new riddle of induction. After refuting the old riddle of induction [the refutation of which is evident in the former paragraph], Goodma n proceeds to outline what he takes to be the genuine problem of induction and its tentative solution. The problem of induction, he writes, is a problem of demonstrating the difference between valid and invalid predictions (Goodman 4). According to Goodman, a prediction is valid if it conforms to a valid rule of induction, and a rule is valid if it yields valid predictions.He acknowledges that such an assumption is characterized by circularity however he notes that it is important to perceive such a conception of the problem in terms of the conceptions of justifications for arguments.   Goodman notes that inductive predictions based on past regularities work better than those based on any other alternative. If such is the case, the rules for formulating predictions must be constructed in such a way that they will coincide with common practices of inductive reasoning.This, on the other hand, is further developed by the quality of predictions, which it produces. This is clearly expl icated by Rubenstein as he notes, â€Å"the centerpiece of a valid inductive logic [according to Goodman] is its reliance on past regularities, and the prescriptive mandate of inductive validity is inseparable from a descriptive account of how inductive judgments are commonly made† (39). This has been the result of Goodman’s dissolution of the old riddle of induction. What follows this is Goodman’s explication that the most promising solution of the aforementioned riddle is untenable. It is through the introduction of such untenability that Goodman presents what he perceives to be the new riddle of induction.Goodman presents two hypotheses that are to be addressed through the use of the inductive method. One says that all emeralds are green and the other says that all emeralds are grue, where grue is said to apply to all things examined before t just in case they are green but to other things just in case they are blue (Goodman 10). Both hypotheses seem to be eq ually well supported by the evidence: all emeralds examined prior to t have been found to be green and grue. However, the two hypotheses are mutually exclusive. If emeralds are grue, they will be blue at t and thereafter, but if the alternative hypothesis is correct, they will be green. Thus, we are left with the paradox that Goodman christened the ‘new riddle of induction'.We cannot, after all, justify induction by appealing to past regularities. However, the reason, according to Goodman, is not the lack of the elusive uniformity principle, but the previously unrecognized ubiquity of regularities.   According to Goodman, regularities exist where one finds them. In relation to this Goodman states that one, however, finds them everywhere (12). If such is the case, it therefore follows that it is useless to base inductive validity on past regularities since it is not possible to predict and hence distinguish which regularities are valid and invalid.At this point, I would like to present a summary of the aforementioned discussion. In the aforementioned discussion, Goodman believes that the old riddle [the Humean riddle/the uniformity principle] has been dissolved and that induction is justified by past regularities. The only remaining difficulty he sees, however, lies in finding a rule for distinguishing between regularities that do and do not yield valid inductive predictions. As was noted in the above discussion, the possibility of such is not possible. This is evident if one considers that regularity necessitates the occurrence of acts of inductive inference. Therefore, the genuine problem of induction cannot be the distinction between the distinction of regularities that do or do not yield valid inductive predictions since the specification of such necessitates the formulation of inductive inferences.As I reckon, Goodman aforementioned conception fails to account for the process of induction. It is important to note that Goodman contends that inductio n begins with regularity. Rubenstein notes, â€Å"induction does not begin with regularity – it ends with it† (44). The failure to consider this leads Goodman to misconstrue the problem of induction. It is important to note that experience of reality does not necessarily start with regularities but rather with individual observations. The role of induction, in this sense lies in providing us with justified methods that allows us to posit the observations that we will account for as regularities. Goodman, however, failed to account for this.In addition to this, it is important to note that such a failure can also be traced to Goodman’s assumptions regarding the process in which individuals formulate inferences. Goodman's error is compounded when he makes a distinction between identifying regularity and projecting it. Once we have decided that our observations represent regularity, it is automatically projected in both temporal directions. This is, in fact, what w e mean by applying the term regularity to our data.Furthermore, Stich and Nisbett contend that the â€Å"equilibrium with inductive practices† that Goodman posited as a necessary aspect in formulating a valid inductive methodology is â€Å"neither necessary nor sufficient for a rule of inductive inference to be justified† (194). They argue that such an assumption fails to consider that â€Å"human subjects regularly and systematically make invalid inferences† and that there an instance wherein human reasoning enables an individual to â€Å"accept invalid rules and reject valid one’s that ought to govern the inference at hand† (Stitch and Nisbett 194).In summary, the aforementioned paper presented Goodman’s arguments in relation to his conception of the new riddle in induction. Such a riddle, however, under scrutiny may be seen as based upon a mistaken assumption of the justification process of beliefs that necessitates the introduction of in formation garnered through the method of induction. This is evident, for example, if one considers the manner in which observations enable the formulation of regularities and not the other way around. An analysis of Goodman’s supposed riddle of induction thereby leaves the reader wondering if such a riddle may be considered as a valid concern for the adherents of the inductive methodology.Works CitedFlew, Anthony.   A Dictionary of Philosophy.   London: Pan Books, 1983.Goodman, Nelson.   Fact, Fiction, and Forecast.   Massachussets: Harvard University Press, 1983.Landesman, Charles.  Ã‚   Skepticism: The Central Issues.   London: Blackwell Publishing, 2002.Rubenstein, Arthur.   â€Å"Induction, Grue Emeralds and Lady Macbeth’s Fallacy.†Ã‚   The Philosophical Quarterly 48.190 (Jan. 1998): 37-49.Stitch, Stephen and Richard Nisbett.   â€Å"Justification and the Psychology of Human Reasoning.’   Philosophy of Science 47.2 (Jun. 1980): 188- 202.